Educational Achievment differences

Educational achievement

It was not until 1878 that the first university allowed women to take degrees, however alternative universities were particularly slow, it was not until 1948 that Cambridge accepted women to receive full degrees (Fulcher and Scott, 2007, p. 338). Haralambos and Holborn (2008) discuss that in the 1970’s and 1980’s the focus was on the underachievement of girls in education but this changed in the 1990’s when boys became the underachievers. Why?

 

In the 1970’s research was undertaken by Sue Sharpe that found that the main priorities of “working-class girls in London schools” started with marriage and children. However in the 1990’s when Sharpe repeated this research she found that girl’s priorities had changed to their careers (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008, p. 644). Due to the increase in divorce rates throughout the 1980’s and 1990’s it is suggested that girls felt increasing pressure to be successful within education and careers in order to be financially stable instead of depending on males.

 

Haralambos and Holborn (2008) discuss that stereotypical boys behaviour in class is based upon the idea that it is “uncool to work” and that seeming “cool is necessary to be popular” (p. 648). Students are also faced with the predicament of being deemed a ‘nerd’ or ‘geek’ if they excel in education, academic work was also seen as “feminine” (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008, p. 648).

 

A further factor that is bound to have had an effect on educational achievement between boys and girls is the curriculums, girls were steered towards domestic roles and boys towards more “technical and scientific” ones (Fulcher and Scott, 2007, p. 339). However in the 1980’s the national curriculum was introduced which deemed it essential that boys and girls take the same subjects, although it was still argued that “science was taught in a masculine way” (Fulcher and Scott, 2007, p. 339).

www.bbc.co.uk (2015)

This chart shows the large gap between genders in educational achievement, the chart illustrates that the gap only seems to be getting wider.

 The gender gap in education is down to more than one thing, girls started to be the achievers not long after the national curriculum was introduced, coincidence?  A constant theme through the topic of education is stereotypes and how the way boys and girls act changes through history, in today’s society it is much more common for women to provide for their family which tends to require a certain degree of education.


More sex and gender blogs:

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Contribution made to theories of gender by studies of masculinity

Are men discriminated against?

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Battle of the sexes

I have already looked at gender inequalities from a feminist perspective, but what about the contributions that studies of masculinity have offered? What is it to be a man? According to Goodey, J. (1997) defining a man is often simplified to what is not feminine (P. 402). I aim within this article to evaluate masculinity within gender studies and attempt to identify a starting point.

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 Are  men discriminated against?

Through research it has become apparent that there is little discussion about masculinity that does not mention feminism. Kimmel, M. (2014) suggests that men are victims of “reverse discrimination” and due to feminism men are now the “second sex” (Lines 16-18). The starting point, of what seems to be a battle of the sexes, arose when men felt their traditional image was being threatened by feminist and homosexual movements. Kimmel, M. (2014) says “If women were imprisoned in the home, all housework and domestic drudgery, men were exiled from the home, turned into soulless robotic workers, in harness to a masculine mystique, so that their only capacity for nurturing was through their wallets” (Lines 30-34).

 

Gilmore, D. D. (1990) discusses three features of masculinity which are “Man the impregnator”, ”Man the provider” and “Man the protector” (P. 136). However, women are now more capable of carrying these roles out themselves which concludes in men losing their way as such and in need of finding a new place for themselves. Gilmore, D. D. argues that these three roles are “dangerous or competitive and failure in any of the roles carries high costs” (P. 136). Therefore men feel they are now failing at their traditional roles, and as Goodey, J. discusses it generates “masculine bravado” that can present itself as aggression (1997, P. 401).

 

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Furthermore, men are under constant pressure to live up to stereotypical masculine traits, Goodey, J. talks about hegemonic masculinity as being a “hierarchy of oppression” that has kept most men “in their place” (P. 403). Haralambos and Holborn (2008) discuss how hegemonic masculinity was successful in creating a theory that homosexuality was a deviant form of masculinity and making it be seen as “criminalized”, homosexuality began to be seen as feminine behavior and allowed heterosexual men to be put down through words such as “sissy” and “wimp” (P. 138-139).   

It is not questionable that females were once the second sex, however feminists have climbed mountains in fighting for female’s rights. Kimmel, M. (2014) states “But when boys are falling behind at school, when 90% of people in prison are male, there's never any thought given to whether men are discriminated against” (Lines 36-38). It seems that so much effort has been put into feminism that males are feeling victimized and largely under pressure due to stereotypical views of men.

buzzfeed.com (2015)

 

Will there ever be an end to the battle of gender inequalities?

Click here to view a students presentation on femininty and masculinity!

Gender Inequality



Nature Vs Nurture

Nature vs Nurture

 

This essay will discuss two explanations for the development of gender, the two explanations are biological and social constructionist. Firstly the essay will review each explanation, look at key thinkers and discuss strengths and weaknesses. The essay will then move on to compare the two explanations against one another and therefore by the use of research studied, lead to a conclusion. 

 

The biological explanation as stated by Udry, R. J. (1995) looks at evolution, endocrinology and genes (p.1267). Evolution looks at how behaviour has evolved through time and the impact it has on the development of gender. Pinker, S. (2003) explains that throughout the animal kingdom, females have to endure the risks and hard labour with each pregnancy and also have to devote time nurturing the offspring as it is the female that would have to endure all this again to replace a child rather than the male (p. 297). Pinker is suggesting that this may be an evolutionary explanation for the nurturing trait of the females. Genetics looks at how behaviour is effected by genes, a common method of researching this has been through twin studies such as a study done by Thomas Bouchard. According to Udry, R. J. (1995) Bouchard found that two identical twins who had been separated whilst growing up were found to have no behaviour or manner on which there was not a definite genetic effect (p. 1271). Furthermore, endocrinology takes account of the responsibility hormones have for an individual’s behaviour from birth and throughout life. As Pinker, S. (2003) describes “Androgens have lasting effects on the brain during fetal development, in the months after birth, and during puberty, and they have transient effects at other times. Estrogens, the characteristically female sex hormones, also affect the brain throughout life” (p. 298). Pinker, S. (2003) also states that studies have shown that the amount of testosterone is found to be greater in violent criminals than it is in non-violent criminals and also higher in trial lawyers rather than those who deal with paperwork (p. 298). This suggests that hormones can largely effect an individual’s behaviour and that different hormones assist in developing an individual’s gender. For example, according to Pinker, S. (2003) women with a higher level of testosterone tend to outshine in apparent male traits such as not smiling as much and possessing a stronger handshake (p. 299).

A major strength to the biological explanation is that it is scientific, this makes the research valid and reliable. On the other hand, there is little space for free will, this explanation suggests that gender development is down to biology alone without taking into consideration any social factors.

 

Moving on to look at the social factors, it is suggested that gender is constructed through socialisation. This is known firstly as early socialisation which is the impact aspects such as home life, friends, family and anything else in your early years has on your development. This could be a parent dressing a baby in Blue because they are male or the toys you are bought such as cars and trucks. A child may be oblivious to the gender being forced upon themselves, the parent may also be unaware that they are forcing a gender upon their child. Following on from this is secondary socialisation which is any institution outside of home such as media, church, school and work. Society creates a stereotype image of how genders must portray themselves, for example slouching, using inappropriate language and dressing in unkempt clothes are not traits you would expect to see of a woman. As Butler, J. (1988) states “gender is instituted through the stylization of the body, and hence, must be understood as the mundane way in which bodily gestures, movements, and enactments of various kinds constitute the illusion of an abiding gendered self” (p. 1). Every aspect of society has an impact on how an individual’s gender develops, from seeing famous people in the media that you may look up to or the respectable teacher at school that acts gracefully as a lady apparently should. The consideration of all environmental factors within this explanation is a major strength, however at the same time it is a limitation as the social constructionist is limited to just this, the effect only society has.

 

Both the biological explanation and the social constructionist share the view that gender develops throughout life, it is not something we are born with. Both explanations also share the deprivation of free will, neither take into consideration that an individual could create their own gender, the view is it is constructed either by society or biologically. A further similarity of the nature vs nurture debate is that they both acknowledge gender roles and sexuality, they recognise that gender has an impact on how you act, the role you play in society and your attraction to others.

On the other hand, a difference between the two explanations is that society can and does change, whereas although biology may be improved, it will not change. A further difference is that biology is something that can be tested repeatedly, it is tangible whereas society is not. Society is not something we can touch, it is intangible and theories cannot be repeatedly researched in the way that biological theories can.

 

In conclusion, research studied suggests that both explanations have strong arguments as to the influence each have had on the development of gender. However it has been discussed that starting at early socialisation the people in a child’s life are influencing a gender upon ones self, this includes the colour of clothing or variety of toys different sexes may wear or play with. Although the biological explanation offers clarification as to the different characteristics and behaviours of male and female, it does not offer justification as to why it is usually possible to tell an individual’s sex just by their appearance. It seems that the greatest explanation offered as to how gender develops is the unquestionable effect of society.  

Sex and Gender Studies Presentation

 

Glossary of sociological terms

Sex

This is the biological difference between male and female, e.g. the reproductive system.

As Bilton, T. et al (2002) discusses sex derives from nature, it allows a distinction between male and female (p. 134).

"The biological divisions between males and females (and very occasionally hermaphrodites). Sex is argued by sociologists to be distinct from gender" (Lawson and Garrod, 2006, p. 259).

Gender

Gender is the identification of male or female, however not necessarily looking at the biological aspect. It is argued that gender is shaped by society and culture. For example, it has been traditional that a boy wears blue and a girl wears pink, a tradition set by society.

Bilton, T. et al (2002) debate that gender is created by society and many classifications of masculine and feminine (p. 134).

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Oxford dictionary (2014) states "The state of being male or female (typically used with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones)" (Lines 5-7).




Gender Roles

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Gender roles are what tend to be specific roles for a specific sex according to social norms, for example, in the past it would be that women stay at home to cook, clean and look after the children whilst men go out and work. However, women are now seen to go out to work, but again this has been stereotyped to jobs such as cleaners, receptionists and nurses whilst men take on roles such as doctors, builders and chefs.

Gender roles also applies expectation of attitude from males and females. Independent, assertive and competitive are approaches expected of males whereas passive sensitive and supportive are more expected from females (http://highered.mheducation.com, 2003).

Masculinity

www.thefreedictionary.com (2014) ''Something traditionally considered to be characteristic of a male'' (Line 4).

Masculinity is what is considered by society of how a male typically behaves, this would be traits such as being strong, controlling and having restricted emotions (Men don't cry!).

Femininity

www.thefreedictionary.com (2014) "A characteristic or trait traditionally held to be female" (Line 4).

Sensitive, emotional, empathy and groomed are all expected of a female in order for her to be feminine. The idea of femininity created by society tends to be that of a female who takes care of her looks, polite and kind.

Gender Identity

A persons private sense of their own gender, usually established in early childhood (www.dictionary.com, 2014).

Gender Identity can be described as an individuals sense of whether they feel they identify with their biological sex. An individual may be born a male, but not follow the typical traits of a male or identify with their given gender. People usually know from a young age that they do not feel they are 'in the right body'.




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Sexuality

Lawson and Garrod (2006) say how Sociologists are fascinated as to how groups are moulded according to sexuality.
Sexuality is about attraction, who you are attracted to, e.g. which sex you prefer. There are stereotype ideas that certain sexualities have certain characteristics such as gay men are thought to be more feminine.